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Colonial Latin America was a fundamentally religious and patriarchal culture, in which women were left little opportunity, if any, to improve their positions and responsibilities in society. Through the analysis of primary sources, including poetry and legal records, this paper shows how several individuals were able to question institutional values set by the Catholic Church in colonial Latin America regarding sexuality, female positions of authority, and education. Through her controversial dedication to education as a nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz justified the role of education in the convent as influential in creating a better understanding of and commitment to one’s theology. Marina de San Miguel challenged the traditional values of female sexuality by confessing to a sexual relationship with Jesus and other saints at the same time as having premarital intimacy with several other individuals, defending that her sexual activities were not sinful acts but holy acts created by God. Ursula de Jesus challenged the racial hierarchy and role of Afro-peruvian women in the convent by exercising religious authority over her sisters and superiors through her mystic visions, even though she never advanced from her position as a beata in church leadership. These women and their challenges towards the principles of the Catholic Church in colonial Latin America were imperative to the development and betterment of the role of women in Latin America, as they advocated for wider female accessibility to education, sexuality, and leadership.

This paper is focused on the fact that although the Spanish empire created a long lasting and often times bloody legacy, it was doomed to failure from the creation of its foundation.Because many different factors contribute to the success or failure of an empire, it is difficult to select one element and argue for its dominance. The Spanish Empire fell almost as suddenly as it rose due to many circumstances including the threat of constant warfare with European powers, a changing world economy, and multiple trade reforms. However, I postulate that the Spanish empire’s rise to power and fall from grace can be explained largely through its complete mismanagement of its economic wealth and total lack of monetary understanding. It was largely through this factor that Spain failed to successfully manage its large domain and continue being a viable power on the European stage. The study of the Spanish empire is of critical importance seeing as it was not only the first European empire that had a major footing in the New World but also a key example of the destruction of economic mismanagement. This presentation draws on multiple sources from prominent Spaniards of the day, including the passionate writing of Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa, who highlights the destruction of the Indies and condemns the management of the empire, and the methodical works of Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, who tries to justify the cruelty of the Spaniards in their treatment of the natives.
 

In 350 BCE, Aristotle proclaimed, “…the male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules, and the other is ruled; this principle, of necessity, extends to all mankind.”  Although Aristotle himself is credited with studying both philosophy and the natural sciences, his sharp division between men and women dominated the scientific fields for nearly two thousand years.  The purpose of this paper was to investigate whether Aristotle’s dichotomy lasted into the European Late Middle Ages by examining the works of three female scientists: Sophia Brahe of Denmark, Maria Kirch of Germany, and Margaret Lucas Cavendish of England.  Arguably, Aristotle remained a dominant intellectual figure until the Enlightenment so it is relevant to take into account the “naming” of scientists since women, despite their work in the same fields as men, were not considered to be scientists, but theoretical philosophers.  Women who wished to pursue a career in science usually were sponsored by men or worked secondary to their husbands or some male figure in their lives. Through analysis of their primary works and their method of access to the field of science, one may infer that women throughout Europe in the late Middle Ages, could not hold the title of “scientist” even though they were practicing science.  In addition, they were not allowed to work except under the authority of a man and were given little, if any, credit for their scientific achievements. 

More Americans died in the Civil War from 1861-1865 than in any other American War.  The political and economic causes of the war can easily overshadow the individual soldier’s motivation for joining the war and risking his (or her) life on the battlefield.  Many soldiers joined the war due to pride and patriotism toward the Union, Confederacy, or their individual states.  Others joined to broaden their horizons or to be able to send money home to the families they were fighting to protect.   But, the war meant something different for African American soldiers.  Through careful analysis of the letters and documents left behind by African American soldiers' who fought for the Union their motivation for joining the war is revealed.  African Americans joined the Union army not only to fight to preserve the Union and federal government, but also to fight for equal rights as people of color who were abused through the institution of slavery. Ultimately African American Union soldiers joined the war in hopes to benefit their race.